The Joint Learning Network for Universal Health Coverage systematically documents the reforms of its member countries and other countries that have expanded health coverage through demand-side financing. The case studies contained in these pages are brief, comparative and modular in nature, describing the key highlights and technical features of each program.
Compare various dimensions of country reform efforts using our interactive tool.
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| Vietnam: Compulsory and Voluntary Health Insurance Schemes |
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The MoH is responsible for overseeing all health insurance programs, while the VSS is the main agency implementing the schemes. The Ministry of Labor - Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) is tasked with identifying the beneficiaries of the HCFP. Read full sectionThe MoH is responsible for overseeing all health insurance programs, while the VSS is the main agency implementing the schemes. The Ministry of Labor - Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) is tasked with identifying the beneficiaries of the HCFP. The VSS is a government agency responsible for the administration of the various social insurance programs, including the collection of insurance premiums. In addition to collecting revenues, VSS’s main responsibility is to issue health insurance cards and reimburse service providers. The MoF manages the tax-transfer process that provides the resources that local governments use to provide budget support to public facilities and to pay the VSS for subsidized enrollees. VSS collects mandatory (and voluntary) contributions to the health insurance program, then pools these with the subsidies from the MoF, and pays the providers for care received by people covered by VSS. Compulsory and Voluntary Health Insurance SchemesInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, State Government
Organization: Centralized
Collections Responsibility: Central Government
Operations Responsibility: Central Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government The MoH is responsible for overseeing all health insurance programs, while the VSS is the main agency implementing the schemes. The Ministry of Labor - Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) is tasked with identifying the beneficiaries of the HCFP. The VSS is a government agency responsible for the administration of the various social insurance programs, including the collection of insurance premiums. In addition to collecting revenues, VSS’s main responsibility is to issue health insurance cards and reimburse service providers. The MoF manages the tax-transfer process that provides the resources that local governments use to provide budget support to public facilities and to pay the VSS for subsidized enrollees. VSS collects mandatory (and voluntary) contributions to the health insurance program, then pools these with the subsidies from the MoF, and pays the providers for care received by people covered by VSS. |
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| Estonia: Estonian Health Insurance Fund |
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The Estonian Health System is centralized at the national level. Funds collection is managed by the Estonian Tax and Customs Board. The tax board then transfers the health contribution to the Estonian Health Insurance Fund (EHIF). The EHIF is also responsible for the operations of the financing system, as it is the only purchaser for health care services within the country. Health system oversight is carried out by both the EHIF supervisory board as well as the health division of the Ministry of Social Affairs. Read full sectionThe Estonian Health System is centralized at the national level. Funds collection is managed by the Estonian Tax and Customs Board. The tax board then transfers the health contribution to the Estonian Health Insurance Fund (EHIF). The EHIF is also responsible for the operations of the financing system, as it is the only purchaser for health care services within the country. Health system oversight is carried out by both the EHIF supervisory board as well as the health division of the Ministry of Social Affairs. The Estonian Health Insurance Fund (EHIF) is responsible for the financing of the health system. Its responsibilities include:
A 15 member supervisory board is responsible for EHIF results. This board is composed of representatives from employer organizations, insured individuals’ organizations, and the state. This board approves the four year development plan and the annual budget. The supervisory board also composes necessary reports and selects providers for contracting. It also has the authority to examine and audit all documents. The management board is responsible for daily EHIF operations. Under the management board, the central and four regional departments conduct needs assessments, contract with providers, and process claims. The government plays a role in planning and regulating the health system by:
The health division of the Ministry of Social Affairs is responsible for:
Table 2: Influence on decisions made by the EHIF
(++ Strong Influence; + Moderate Influence; -- No Influence) County governments are responsible for:
All health care providers within Estonia function as private parties operating under the purview of private law. Family practices are organized as private businesses or joint-stock companies, while hospitals are organized as for-profit joint stock companies or non-profit foundations. Estonian Health Insurance FundInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration:
Organization: Centralized
Collections Responsibility: Central Government
Operations Responsibility: Central Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government The Estonian Health System is centralized at the national level. Funds collection is managed by the Estonian Tax and Customs Board. The tax board then transfers the health contribution to the Estonian Health Insurance Fund (EHIF). The EHIF is also responsible for the operations of the financing system, as it is the only purchaser for health care services within the country. Health system oversight is carried out by both the EHIF supervisory board as well as the health division of the Ministry of Social Affairs. The Estonian Health Insurance Fund (EHIF) is responsible for the financing of the health system. Its responsibilities include:
A 15 member supervisory board is responsible for EHIF results. This board is composed of representatives from employer organizations, insured individuals’ organizations, and the state. This board approves the four year development plan and the annual budget. The supervisory board also composes necessary reports and selects providers for contracting. It also has the authority to examine and audit all documents. The management board is responsible for daily EHIF operations. Under the management board, the central and four regional departments conduct needs assessments, contract with providers, and process claims. The government plays a role in planning and regulating the health system by:
The health division of the Ministry of Social Affairs is responsible for:
Table 2: Influence on decisions made by the EHIF
(++ Strong Influence; + Moderate Influence; -- No Influence) County governments are responsible for:
All health care providers within Estonia function as private parties operating under the purview of private law. Family practices are organized as private businesses or joint-stock companies, while hospitals are organized as for-profit joint stock companies or non-profit foundations. |
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| Indonesia: Jamkesmas |
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Presently, five main actors are involved in the administration of the Jamkesmas scheme (1) the National Social Security Council (DJSN), (2) national government agencies, including Depkes (MoH), the Ministry of Finance (MoF), the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Ministry of Social Affairs (Menkokesra), and the Ministry of National Development Planning (Bappenas), (3) provincial and district governments, (4) public and private providers of care, and (5) the insurer/third-party administrator. Read full sectionPresently, five main actors are involved in the administration of the Jamkesmas scheme (1) the National Social Security Council (DJSN), (2) national government agencies, including Depkes (MoH), the Ministry of Finance (MoF), the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Ministry of Social Affairs (Menkokesra), and the Ministry of National Development Planning (Bappenas), (3) provincial and district governments, (4) public and private providers of care, and (5) the insurer/third-party administrator. A revised institutional structure of Indonesia’s Jamkesmas scheme is currently being developed. The table below summarizes the roles and responsibilities of all of the organizations involved in implementing national health insurance, including Jamkesmas:
LR = long run; SR = short run Note that the Ministry of Finance has an office overseeing insurance programs and carriers of all types. They also have actuarial capacity available when required. JamkesmasInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, District/Local Government, Commercial insurers
Organization: Decentralized to district/local level
Collections Responsibility: District/Local Government
Operations Responsibility: Central Government, District/Local Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government Presently, five main actors are involved in the administration of the Jamkesmas scheme (1) the National Social Security Council (DJSN), (2) national government agencies, including Depkes (MoH), the Ministry of Finance (MoF), the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Ministry of Social Affairs (Menkokesra), and the Ministry of National Development Planning (Bappenas), (3) provincial and district governments, (4) public and private providers of care, and (5) the insurer/third-party administrator. A revised institutional structure of Indonesia’s Jamkesmas scheme is currently being developed. The table below summarizes the roles and responsibilities of all of the organizations involved in implementing national health insurance, including Jamkesmas:
LR = long run; SR = short run Note that the Ministry of Finance has an office overseeing insurance programs and carriers of all types. They also have actuarial capacity available when required. |
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| Mali: Mutuelles |
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Although the Social Protection Ministry is the sole entity in charge of the three medical coverage systems, the institutional framework is different for each one. For the Mutuelles, the National Strategy identifies a new organizational chart, illustrated below. This scheme seeks to create Mutuelles at the community or commune level, networked at the higher levels by the district Mutuelle unions, the regional federations of Mutuelles, and a national federation of Mutuelles. Read full sectionAlthough the Social Protection Ministry is the sole entity in charge of the three medical coverage systems, the institutional framework is different for each one. For the Mutuelles, the National Strategy identifies a new organizational chart, illustrated below. This scheme seeks to create Mutuelles at the community or commune level, networked at the higher levels by the district Mutuelle unions, the regional federations of Mutuelles, and a national federation of Mutuelles.
Table 4 illustrates the institutional framework planned for the Mutuelle system. Table 4: Institutional system for the Mutuelle system
Source: Ministry of Social Protection For the AMO, a National Health Insurance Fund (CANAM) was set up as a management agency, with two delegated management entities: the Malian Health Insurance Fund (CMSS) and the National Social Welfare Institute (INPS) for collecting dues and paying for health care services. The National Medical Assistance Agency (ANAM) was set up for RAMED. The management bodies and their respective roles are shown in Table 5. Table 5: Organization and operating procedures– AMO and RAMED
Source: Ministry of Social Protection MutuellesInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, District/Local Government, Mutuelles
Organization: Decentralized to district/local level
Collections Responsibility: Mutuelles
Operations Responsibility: Mutuelles
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government, District/Local Government Although the Social Protection Ministry is the sole entity in charge of the three medical coverage systems, the institutional framework is different for each one. For the Mutuelles, the National Strategy identifies a new organizational chart, illustrated below. This scheme seeks to create Mutuelles at the community or commune level, networked at the higher levels by the district Mutuelle unions, the regional federations of Mutuelles, and a national federation of Mutuelles.
Table 4 illustrates the institutional framework planned for the Mutuelle system. Table 4: Institutional system for the Mutuelle system
Source: Ministry of Social Protection For the AMO, a National Health Insurance Fund (CANAM) was set up as a management agency, with two delegated management entities: the Malian Health Insurance Fund (CMSS) and the National Social Welfare Institute (INPS) for collecting dues and paying for health care services. The National Medical Assistance Agency (ANAM) was set up for RAMED. The management bodies and their respective roles are shown in Table 5. Table 5: Organization and operating procedures– AMO and RAMED
Source: Ministry of Social Protection |
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| : Taiwan: National Health Insurance |
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The organization of health administration in Taiwan is divided into two structures: The National level and the local level. The National Health Insurance (NHI) system is administered by the central government, which has the overall responsibility for the formulation of health care policies and the regulation of health care services throughout Taiwan. Read full sectionThe organization of health administration in Taiwan is divided into two structures: The National level and the local level. The National Health Insurance (NHI) system is administered by the central government, which has the overall responsibility for the formulation of health care policies and the regulation of health care services throughout Taiwan. The Department of Health (DOH) has jurisdiction over the Bureau of National Health Insurance (BNHI), the NHI supervisory Committee, the NHI Dispute Mediation Committee, and the NHI Medical Expenditure Negotiation Committee, all of which plan and monitor tasks that relate to the NHI. BNHI acts as the primary executive of the NHI. BNHI contracts with health care facilities and is the primary organization responsible for administering the National Health Insurance system, collecting premiums from the insured and regulating health care services for the insured. Under the executive branch, Taiwan has 6 regional divisions divided into 25 local health bureaus under city or county local governments. These local bureaus are responsible for daily operations of health management and directly handle underwriting operations, insurance premium collection, review and payment of medical claims, and management of NHI-contracted medical care institutions. The bureaus all have close relationships to local level health and aid in managing the contracted medical institutions through quality counseling, and management of emergency rescue services, mental health services, and human resources. In addition, each of the 25 county governments in Taiwan has a health liaison bureau, which is responsible for the operation of public health centers within their geographical region under the guidance of the health department. While the NHI is governed by the central government, most management of NHI is decentralized. The BNHI is the primary overseer of NHI, acts to set the annual national budget, and implements most policy in a centralized, top-down fashion. The BNHI also acts as the primary intermediary between the insured and the providers. Oversight of the NHI is also provided by the NHI Supervisory Committee (NHISC), which provides a forum for social associations, employers and providers to communicate with one another; the NHI Disputes Mediation Committee (NHIDM), which mediates disputes between the insured and providers; the NHI Expenditure Negotiation Committee (NHIENC), which negotiates the payments for providers under the Global Budget Payment; and the NHI Task Force. The daily management of the NHI, however, is highly decentralized. The BNHI distributes responsibilities to the 6 regional divisions and local governments. National Health InsuranceInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, District/Local Government
Organization: Decentralized to district/local level
Collections Responsibility: Central Government, District/Local Government
Operations Responsibility: Central Government, District/Local Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government The organization of health administration in Taiwan is divided into two structures: The National level and the local level. The National Health Insurance (NHI) system is administered by the central government, which has the overall responsibility for the formulation of health care policies and the regulation of health care services throughout Taiwan. The Department of Health (DOH) has jurisdiction over the Bureau of National Health Insurance (BNHI), the NHI supervisory Committee, the NHI Dispute Mediation Committee, and the NHI Medical Expenditure Negotiation Committee, all of which plan and monitor tasks that relate to the NHI. BNHI acts as the primary executive of the NHI. BNHI contracts with health care facilities and is the primary organization responsible for administering the National Health Insurance system, collecting premiums from the insured and regulating health care services for the insured. Under the executive branch, Taiwan has 6 regional divisions divided into 25 local health bureaus under city or county local governments. These local bureaus are responsible for daily operations of health management and directly handle underwriting operations, insurance premium collection, review and payment of medical claims, and management of NHI-contracted medical care institutions. The bureaus all have close relationships to local level health and aid in managing the contracted medical institutions through quality counseling, and management of emergency rescue services, mental health services, and human resources. In addition, each of the 25 county governments in Taiwan has a health liaison bureau, which is responsible for the operation of public health centers within their geographical region under the guidance of the health department. While the NHI is governed by the central government, most management of NHI is decentralized. The BNHI is the primary overseer of NHI, acts to set the annual national budget, and implements most policy in a centralized, top-down fashion. The BNHI also acts as the primary intermediary between the insured and the providers. Oversight of the NHI is also provided by the NHI Supervisory Committee (NHISC), which provides a forum for social associations, employers and providers to communicate with one another; the NHI Disputes Mediation Committee (NHIDM), which mediates disputes between the insured and providers; the NHI Expenditure Negotiation Committee (NHIENC), which negotiates the payments for providers under the Global Budget Payment; and the NHI Task Force. The daily management of the NHI, however, is highly decentralized. The BNHI distributes responsibilities to the 6 regional divisions and local governments. |
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| Brazil: Unified Health System (SUS) |
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The Brazilian health system is largely decentralized. Funds collection takes place at the federal, state, and municipal levels, with the municipal level as the final destination for resources. Operations within the Brazilian health system are managed primarily at the state and municipal levels. Finally, federal and state governments have primary responsibility for overseeing the health system, with the Ministry of Health and the state health secretariats taking lead roles. Read full sectionThe Brazilian health system is largely decentralized. Funds collection takes place at the federal, state, and municipal levels, with the municipal level as the final destination for resources. Operations within the Brazilian health system are managed primarily at the state and municipal levels. Finally, federal and state governments have primary responsibility for overseeing the health system, with the Ministry of Health and the state health secretariats taking lead roles. The Brazilian health system is divided into the Unified Health System (SUS), which encompasses the public provision of health care, and the Supplementary Health System (SHS), which encompasses the private provision of health services. Under the SUS, the federal government is responsible for developing national policies, controlling national regulation, providing technical and financial assistance to states and municipalities, and regulating public-private relations as well as private sector activity. The states are responsible for the regional network, as well as for supervising and providing technical and financial support to the municipalities. The municipalities are responsible for providing health services and health planning. At the federal level, the Ministry of Health (MOH) is responsible for the health sector. The MOH has counterparts at the state and municipal level which are organized into Secretariats. Each of the secretariats has a health fund responsible for consolidating the financial resources that come from the different sources (i.e. the municipal fund consolidates municipal, state and federal resources while the state fund consolidates state and federal resources).
Planning and allocation decisions occur every four years at National Health Conferences (NHC). The most recent one was the 13th NHC in 2007. Conferences occur in stages whereby municipal health councils meet first, followed by state councils, and finally ending with the national conference. The councils are formed by the following types of members: 50% are users of the SUS, 25% are elected representatives from the health professions, and 25% are elected representatives of managers and providers of public health services. The health councils are bodies of the executive branch which include the Ministry of Health, the State Secretary of Health, and the Municipal Secretary of Health. As of 2006, Brazil had 4,390 municipal health councils with at least 100,000 members in total. Most of these municipal councils were formed in 1991. The National Health Council has 48 members and holds monthly plenary meetings, organizes commissions and work groups, and has an executive secretary. In preparation for each conference, each council produces a priority-setting health policy report concerning a core subject that is predetermined by the NHC. Municipal reports are sent to the state committee and the state reports are sent to the national committee. During the last five days of the last NHC, ten discussion groups debated and voted for the health legislation proposed by the state jurisdictions. Those that received at least 70% of the vote and were approved by 6 out of the 10 discussion groups became policy. Proposals that received between 30% and 69% of the vote could become policy if during a final voting round they received 50% plus one vote. Unified Health System (SUS)Institutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, State Government, District/Local Government
Organization: Decentralized to district/local level
Collections Responsibility: Central Government, State Government, District/Local Government
Operations Responsibility: State Government, District/Local Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government, State Government The Brazilian health system is largely decentralized. Funds collection takes place at the federal, state, and municipal levels, with the municipal level as the final destination for resources. Operations within the Brazilian health system are managed primarily at the state and municipal levels. Finally, federal and state governments have primary responsibility for overseeing the health system, with the Ministry of Health and the state health secretariats taking lead roles. The Brazilian health system is divided into the Unified Health System (SUS), which encompasses the public provision of health care, and the Supplementary Health System (SHS), which encompasses the private provision of health services. Under the SUS, the federal government is responsible for developing national policies, controlling national regulation, providing technical and financial assistance to states and municipalities, and regulating public-private relations as well as private sector activity. The states are responsible for the regional network, as well as for supervising and providing technical and financial support to the municipalities. The municipalities are responsible for providing health services and health planning. At the federal level, the Ministry of Health (MOH) is responsible for the health sector. The MOH has counterparts at the state and municipal level which are organized into Secretariats. Each of the secretariats has a health fund responsible for consolidating the financial resources that come from the different sources (i.e. the municipal fund consolidates municipal, state and federal resources while the state fund consolidates state and federal resources).
Planning and allocation decisions occur every four years at National Health Conferences (NHC). The most recent one was the 13th NHC in 2007. Conferences occur in stages whereby municipal health councils meet first, followed by state councils, and finally ending with the national conference. The councils are formed by the following types of members: 50% are users of the SUS, 25% are elected representatives from the health professions, and 25% are elected representatives of managers and providers of public health services. The health councils are bodies of the executive branch which include the Ministry of Health, the State Secretary of Health, and the Municipal Secretary of Health. As of 2006, Brazil had 4,390 municipal health councils with at least 100,000 members in total. Most of these municipal councils were formed in 1991. The National Health Council has 48 members and holds monthly plenary meetings, organizes commissions and work groups, and has an executive secretary. In preparation for each conference, each council produces a priority-setting health policy report concerning a core subject that is predetermined by the NHC. Municipal reports are sent to the state committee and the state reports are sent to the national committee. During the last five days of the last NHC, ten discussion groups debated and voted for the health legislation proposed by the state jurisdictions. Those that received at least 70% of the vote and were approved by 6 out of the 10 discussion groups became policy. Proposals that received between 30% and 69% of the vote could become policy if during a final voting round they received 50% plus one vote. |
