The Joint Learning Network for Universal Health Coverage systematically documents the reforms of its member countries and other countries that have expanded health coverage through demand-side financing. The case studies contained in these pages are brief, comparative and modular in nature, describing the key highlights and technical features of each program.
Compare various dimensions of country reform efforts using our interactive tool.
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| Vietnam: Compulsory and Voluntary Health Insurance Schemes |
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The MoH is responsible for overseeing all health insurance programs, while the VSS is the main agency implementing the schemes. The Ministry of Labor - Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) is tasked with identifying the beneficiaries of the HCFP. Read full sectionThe MoH is responsible for overseeing all health insurance programs, while the VSS is the main agency implementing the schemes. The Ministry of Labor - Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) is tasked with identifying the beneficiaries of the HCFP. The VSS is a government agency responsible for the administration of the various social insurance programs, including the collection of insurance premiums. In addition to collecting revenues, VSS’s main responsibility is to issue health insurance cards and reimburse service providers. The MoF manages the tax-transfer process that provides the resources that local governments use to provide budget support to public facilities and to pay the VSS for subsidized enrollees. VSS collects mandatory (and voluntary) contributions to the health insurance program, then pools these with the subsidies from the MoF, and pays the providers for care received by people covered by VSS. Compulsory and Voluntary Health Insurance SchemesInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, State Government
Organization: Centralized
Collections Responsibility: Central Government
Operations Responsibility: Central Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government The MoH is responsible for overseeing all health insurance programs, while the VSS is the main agency implementing the schemes. The Ministry of Labor - Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) is tasked with identifying the beneficiaries of the HCFP. The VSS is a government agency responsible for the administration of the various social insurance programs, including the collection of insurance premiums. In addition to collecting revenues, VSS’s main responsibility is to issue health insurance cards and reimburse service providers. The MoF manages the tax-transfer process that provides the resources that local governments use to provide budget support to public facilities and to pay the VSS for subsidized enrollees. VSS collects mandatory (and voluntary) contributions to the health insurance program, then pools these with the subsidies from the MoF, and pays the providers for care received by people covered by VSS. |
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| Indonesia: Jamkesmas |
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Presently, five main actors are involved in the administration of the Jamkesmas scheme (1) the National Social Security Council (DJSN), (2) national government agencies, including Depkes (MoH), the Ministry of Finance (MoF), the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Ministry of Social Affairs (Menkokesra), and the Ministry of National Development Planning (Bappenas), (3) provincial and district governments, (4) public and private providers of care, and (5) the insurer/third-party administrator. Read full sectionPresently, five main actors are involved in the administration of the Jamkesmas scheme (1) the National Social Security Council (DJSN), (2) national government agencies, including Depkes (MoH), the Ministry of Finance (MoF), the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Ministry of Social Affairs (Menkokesra), and the Ministry of National Development Planning (Bappenas), (3) provincial and district governments, (4) public and private providers of care, and (5) the insurer/third-party administrator. A revised institutional structure of Indonesia’s Jamkesmas scheme is currently being developed. The table below summarizes the roles and responsibilities of all of the organizations involved in implementing national health insurance, including Jamkesmas:
LR = long run; SR = short run Note that the Ministry of Finance has an office overseeing insurance programs and carriers of all types. They also have actuarial capacity available when required. JamkesmasInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, District/Local Government, Commercial insurers
Organization: Decentralized to district/local level
Collections Responsibility: District/Local Government
Operations Responsibility: Central Government, District/Local Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government Presently, five main actors are involved in the administration of the Jamkesmas scheme (1) the National Social Security Council (DJSN), (2) national government agencies, including Depkes (MoH), the Ministry of Finance (MoF), the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), Ministry of Social Affairs (Menkokesra), and the Ministry of National Development Planning (Bappenas), (3) provincial and district governments, (4) public and private providers of care, and (5) the insurer/third-party administrator. A revised institutional structure of Indonesia’s Jamkesmas scheme is currently being developed. The table below summarizes the roles and responsibilities of all of the organizations involved in implementing national health insurance, including Jamkesmas:
LR = long run; SR = short run Note that the Ministry of Finance has an office overseeing insurance programs and carriers of all types. They also have actuarial capacity available when required. |
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| Chile: National Health Fund (FONASA) |
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The National Health Fund (FONASA) is a public insurer responsible for providing health coverage to persons who contribute 7% of their monthly wages as well as to the indigent. FONASA provides health coverage to all its beneficiaries without exclusions based on age, sex, income, number of family members, or preexisting conditions. It is also responsible for financing both the Institutional and Free Election modalities by collecting, administering, and distributing health resources. FONASA also finances the purchase of equipment, instruments, implements and other infrastructure elements that are needed for the public health system. Read full sectionThe National Health Fund (FONASA) is a public insurer responsible for providing health coverage to persons who contribute 7% of their monthly wages as well as to the indigent. FONASA provides health coverage to all its beneficiaries without exclusions based on age, sex, income, number of family members, or preexisting conditions. It is also responsible for financing both the Institutional and Free Election modalities by collecting, administering, and distributing health resources. FONASA also finances the purchase of equipment, instruments, implements and other infrastructure elements that are needed for the public health system. The Ministry of Health (MOH) exercises many responsibilities within the health system: (1) it formulates, controls, and evaluates general plans and programs within the health sector; (2) it defines national health objectives; (3) it directs all national activities related to the provision of health activities; (4) it establishes general norms relating to technical, administrative, and financial matters within the health sector; (5) it monitors the fulfillment of health norms through the Regional Ministerial Health Secretariats; (6) it evaluates the states of public health issues; and (7) it formulates, evaluates, and implements the Universal Access with Explicit Guarantees (AUGE) plan. The National Health Superintendence was established in 2005 and charged with the responsibility of watching and controlling FONASA and the ISAPREs. Its primary tasks are to license both public and private health providers and to oversee AUGE compliance by both FONASA and the ISAPREs. The Health Insurance Institutions (ISAPREs) are for-profit or non-profit private insurers that must offer a minimum benefits package that is equal to the benefits covered under GES. However, they are free to provide additional coverage to those willing to purchase it.
National Health Fund (FONASA)Institutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, State Government
Organization: Centralized
Collections Responsibility: Central Government
Operations Responsibility: Central Government, State Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government The National Health Fund (FONASA) is a public insurer responsible for providing health coverage to persons who contribute 7% of their monthly wages as well as to the indigent. FONASA provides health coverage to all its beneficiaries without exclusions based on age, sex, income, number of family members, or preexisting conditions. It is also responsible for financing both the Institutional and Free Election modalities by collecting, administering, and distributing health resources. FONASA also finances the purchase of equipment, instruments, implements and other infrastructure elements that are needed for the public health system. The Ministry of Health (MOH) exercises many responsibilities within the health system: (1) it formulates, controls, and evaluates general plans and programs within the health sector; (2) it defines national health objectives; (3) it directs all national activities related to the provision of health activities; (4) it establishes general norms relating to technical, administrative, and financial matters within the health sector; (5) it monitors the fulfillment of health norms through the Regional Ministerial Health Secretariats; (6) it evaluates the states of public health issues; and (7) it formulates, evaluates, and implements the Universal Access with Explicit Guarantees (AUGE) plan. The National Health Superintendence was established in 2005 and charged with the responsibility of watching and controlling FONASA and the ISAPREs. Its primary tasks are to license both public and private health providers and to oversee AUGE compliance by both FONASA and the ISAPREs. The Health Insurance Institutions (ISAPREs) are for-profit or non-profit private insurers that must offer a minimum benefits package that is equal to the benefits covered under GES. However, they are free to provide additional coverage to those willing to purchase it.
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| Nigeria: National Health Insurance System |
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The National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) is the body responsible for regulation of the system and the different health insurance schemes. The Governing Board of the National Health Insurance Scheme is the National Health Insurance Council (NHIC). NHIC works to regulate the scheme (including setting standards, determining contribution rates, providing technical support, etc), license HMOs and providers, train health care providers, and manage the National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF). Read full sectionThe National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) is the body responsible for regulation of the system and the different health insurance schemes. The Governing Board of the National Health Insurance Scheme is the National Health Insurance Council (NHIC). NHIC works to regulate the scheme (including setting standards, determining contribution rates, providing technical support, etc), license HMOs and providers, train health care providers, and manage the National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF). HMOS are licensed by the NHIS to facilitate the provision of healthcare benefits to contributors under the Formal Sector Social health Insurance Program; to interface between eligible contributors, including voluntary contributors and the healthcare providers, ensure member registration, public education about the schemes, collect premiums from members and employers, contract with providers, process claims, and pay claims directly to providers.
The informal sector scheme under the NHIS is managed by a Board of Trustees composed of the Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer and four others. A clerk is appointed to carry out clerical and accounting duties. The Board of Trustees has executive power and is responsible for collecting contributions from participants, paying providers for services rendered, and operating a bank account with an NHIS accredited Bank. The Nigerian system is organized as a federation and divided into three tiers: federal, state, and local. The federal government sets overall policy direction and standards, implements national immunization programs, and oversees federally funded tertiary health facilities. The states undertake policy making and regulation as well as financial responsibility for the personnel, operating costs, and capital investment of the tertiary, secondary, and primary care facilities. The 774 local government associations (LGAs) are responsible for primary health care delivery, under the guidance and supervision of federal and state departments of primary health care. LGAs tend to exert the least influence in this system, and frequently suffer from insufficient funding. National Health Insurance SystemInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, Other
Organization: Centralized
Collections Responsibility: Other
Operations Responsibility: Central Government, Other
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government The National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) is the body responsible for regulation of the system and the different health insurance schemes. The Governing Board of the National Health Insurance Scheme is the National Health Insurance Council (NHIC). NHIC works to regulate the scheme (including setting standards, determining contribution rates, providing technical support, etc), license HMOs and providers, train health care providers, and manage the National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF). HMOS are licensed by the NHIS to facilitate the provision of healthcare benefits to contributors under the Formal Sector Social health Insurance Program; to interface between eligible contributors, including voluntary contributors and the healthcare providers, ensure member registration, public education about the schemes, collect premiums from members and employers, contract with providers, process claims, and pay claims directly to providers.
The informal sector scheme under the NHIS is managed by a Board of Trustees composed of the Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer and four others. A clerk is appointed to carry out clerical and accounting duties. The Board of Trustees has executive power and is responsible for collecting contributions from participants, paying providers for services rendered, and operating a bank account with an NHIS accredited Bank. The Nigerian system is organized as a federation and divided into three tiers: federal, state, and local. The federal government sets overall policy direction and standards, implements national immunization programs, and oversees federally funded tertiary health facilities. The states undertake policy making and regulation as well as financial responsibility for the personnel, operating costs, and capital investment of the tertiary, secondary, and primary care facilities. The 774 local government associations (LGAs) are responsible for primary health care delivery, under the guidance and supervision of federal and state departments of primary health care. LGAs tend to exert the least influence in this system, and frequently suffer from insufficient funding. |
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| Kenya: National Hospital Insurance Fund |
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When the National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF) was transformed from a department of the Ministry of Health to a State Corporation, the management of the organization switched to become an all-inclusive board composed of the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Health (MOH), Central Organisation of Trade Unions, Directorate of Personnel Management, Kenya National Union of Teachers, Director of Medical Services, Federation of Kenya Employers, Association Kenya Insurers, Christian Health Association of Kenya, Kenya Medical Association and an additional, rotating member of civil society. In all, 2/3 of the board comes from outside of the ranks of the government itself. The NHIF board makes the primary decisions regarding management of NHIF. The Board suggests an annual budget which is then voted on by the National Assembly. Read full sectionWhen the National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF) was transformed from a department of the Ministry of Health to a State Corporation, the management of the organization switched to become an all-inclusive board composed of the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Health (MOH), Central Organisation of Trade Unions, Directorate of Personnel Management, Kenya National Union of Teachers, Director of Medical Services, Federation of Kenya Employers, Association Kenya Insurers, Christian Health Association of Kenya, Kenya Medical Association and an additional, rotating member of civil society. In all, 2/3 of the board comes from outside of the ranks of the government itself. The NHIF board makes the primary decisions regarding management of NHIF. The Board suggests an annual budget which is then voted on by the National Assembly. The NHIF has decentralized its operations to 31 local branches and 82 service points across the country. These branches are responsible for claims processing and quality assurance, enrollment and collection of premiums (especially from informal sector employees and other ‘voluntary’ enrollees), and marketing of the program. The branches also implement quality programs alongside contracted providers, and execute most of the monitoring and evaluation programs within the NHIF. Since its separation from the MOH, the NHIF is no longer held directly accountable by the MOH. Several new mechanisms for ensuring accountability have been instituted, however. These include the Board’s Audit and Integrity Subcommittee, the Auditor General of the Kenyan Government (which files annual reports to the Parliament on the performance of each government agency, including the NHIF), the NHIF’s Efficiency Monitoring Unit (which handles complaints and performs periodic audits of the operations of the agency) and finally the NHIF Ombudsman (which receives and mediates complaints).
Implementing partners and development partners aid the MOH in implementing health plans by providing services such as funding, specialized care, research, training or health insurance. The majority of them are parastatals who receive a portion of their annual funds from the Government of Kenya and have to raise the other part themselves through cost sharing or other sources, such as the National Hospital Insurance Fund, the Kenyatta National Hospital, and Kenya Medical Research Institute, though they can also be private organizations. National Hospital Insurance FundInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration: Central Government, District/Local Government
Organization: Decentralized to district/local level
Collections Responsibility: District/Local Government
Operations Responsibility: District/Local Government
Oversight Responsibility: Central Government When the National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF) was transformed from a department of the Ministry of Health to a State Corporation, the management of the organization switched to become an all-inclusive board composed of the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Health (MOH), Central Organisation of Trade Unions, Directorate of Personnel Management, Kenya National Union of Teachers, Director of Medical Services, Federation of Kenya Employers, Association Kenya Insurers, Christian Health Association of Kenya, Kenya Medical Association and an additional, rotating member of civil society. In all, 2/3 of the board comes from outside of the ranks of the government itself. The NHIF board makes the primary decisions regarding management of NHIF. The Board suggests an annual budget which is then voted on by the National Assembly. The NHIF has decentralized its operations to 31 local branches and 82 service points across the country. These branches are responsible for claims processing and quality assurance, enrollment and collection of premiums (especially from informal sector employees and other ‘voluntary’ enrollees), and marketing of the program. The branches also implement quality programs alongside contracted providers, and execute most of the monitoring and evaluation programs within the NHIF. Since its separation from the MOH, the NHIF is no longer held directly accountable by the MOH. Several new mechanisms for ensuring accountability have been instituted, however. These include the Board’s Audit and Integrity Subcommittee, the Auditor General of the Kenyan Government (which files annual reports to the Parliament on the performance of each government agency, including the NHIF), the NHIF’s Efficiency Monitoring Unit (which handles complaints and performs periodic audits of the operations of the agency) and finally the NHIF Ombudsman (which receives and mediates complaints).
Implementing partners and development partners aid the MOH in implementing health plans by providing services such as funding, specialized care, research, training or health insurance. The majority of them are parastatals who receive a portion of their annual funds from the Government of Kenya and have to raise the other part themselves through cost sharing or other sources, such as the National Hospital Insurance Fund, the Kenyatta National Hospital, and Kenya Medical Research Institute, though they can also be private organizations. |
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| India: Rajiv Aarogyasri |
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Aarogyasri is managed by the Aarogyasri Healthcare Trust, a body that is responsible for overseeing the entire insurance program, including certain administrative functions such as setting benefits packages and pricing, managing contracts with insurer(s) and in-network providers, approving claims and monitoring of the scheme. Read full sectionAarogyasri is managed by the Aarogyasri Healthcare Trust, a body that is responsible for overseeing the entire insurance program, including certain administrative functions such as setting benefits packages and pricing, managing contracts with insurer(s) and in-network providers, approving claims and monitoring of the scheme. The administrative structure of Aarogyasri is comprised of four main organizations:
The table below summarizes the roles and responsibilities of all of the organizations involved in operationalizing Aarogyasri:
Rajiv AarogyasriInstitutional structures Key Actors in Insurance Administration:
Organization: Centralized
Collections Responsibility: State Government
Operations Responsibility: State Government, Commercial insurers
Oversight Responsibility: State Government Aarogyasri is managed by the Aarogyasri Healthcare Trust, a body that is responsible for overseeing the entire insurance program, including certain administrative functions such as setting benefits packages and pricing, managing contracts with insurer(s) and in-network providers, approving claims and monitoring of the scheme. The administrative structure of Aarogyasri is comprised of four main organizations:
The table below summarizes the roles and responsibilities of all of the organizations involved in operationalizing Aarogyasri:
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Source: National Hospital Insurance Fund
The Kenyan health system is administered from the top down by the Ministry of Health (MOH), which was broken into two Ministries after the post-election turmoil of 2007: the Ministry of Medical Services, and the Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation. Kenya has a Sector Wide Approach (SWAp) to coordinate and support the health care system, which incorporates health partners on all levels. The role of the central government is to formulate policy, set priorities, budget and allocate resources, and regulate service provision through a decentralized framework. Provinces, districts and local community areas are increasingly responsible for implementation and day to day management of the health system.